College of Education

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50/50 Two Way Immersion Program Implementation Perspectives
(2017-12-22) Torres, Kari N; McEnery, Lillian; Huss-Keeler, Rebecca; Raymond, Roberta; Weaver, Laurie
Two-Way Immersion Programs are being implemented by school districts and charter school throughout the United States with increasing frequency. Many of these two-way immersion programs utilize the 50/50 model and districts implement them in different ways. The researcher intended to discover what TWI implementation successes and challenges existed at Bluebird Elementary and in Jones ISD, through analysis of stakeholder perceptions regarding implementation issues of the TWI 50/50 model. The researcher examined implementation perceptions of teachers and campus administrators in the Bluebird Elementary TWI program, as well as central office administrator perceptions regarding the Jones ISD TWI program. The researcher used a qualitative case study methodology based on language acquisition theory and TWI program best practices to determine the perceptions of teachers, administrators and central office program personnel in the TWI program. This case study examined key implementation challenges and successes that exist in TWI program implementation in Jones ISD, and revealed that teachers, administrators and district leadership shared similar perceptions for some implementation issues, and different perceptions for others. Data analysis of these perceptions revealed seven themes in TWI implementation, while giving insight into implementation structures that were successful and others that were challenges and may need to be addressed in Jones ISD to support ongoing effective implementation. The themes that emerged from the data collection included instructional implementation, staffing, model implementation fidelity, professional development, student selection and marketing, parental involvement and communication, and district and campus support networks. The implications of this study can inform TWI 50/50 implementation.
A case study of teacher attitudes, belief systems, and behaviors associated with substantive student academic achievement in a charter school serving an economically disadvantaged urban population
(2016-11-09) Goodman, Jennifer Suzanne; Schumacher, Gerald T.; Orange, Amy; McEnery, Lillian; Price, Carlos
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to research teacher attitudes, belief systems, and behaviors associated with academic achievement for students in a charter school serving an economically disadvantaged, urban population. This research sought to acquire teacher and student perceptions concerning what they believed were the most effective perspectives, convictions, and actions of successful teachers. Since the research shows that the teacher really matters and is the most impactful component to student academic achievement, then administrators can use these guiding qualities to hire the best teachers for their students and to focus on improving the caliber of their teachers. Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory was utilized to frame this study as the researcher viewed perceived best practices through the lens of four teachers and nine high school students in a public charter school. The findings indicated that research based best practices supporting effective teacher attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are consistent in a public charter school as well and the greatest opportunity for academic achievement improvements lies with the quality of the teachers.
A phenomenological study of doctoral student experiences in an educational leadership doctoral program
(2018-07-27) Chance, Erica Marie; Marquez, Judith; Tello, Angelica; McEnery, Lillian; Perera-Diltz, Dilani
The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of doctoral students in two higher education doctoral programs in Educational Leadership. This research was conducted to learn the experiences and barriers faced during the dissertation phase of the doctoral program. Past research has shown that attrition rates are over 50% and there are several reasons why doctoral students do not finish their program and are considered ABD. Participants selected for this study were doctoral students from two different doctoral programs in Educational Leadership. These doctoral students completed all coursework required for the doctoral program except for the dissertation. These students were classified as ABD. Data was collected through phone interviews and analyzed by the researcher once interviews were transcribed. Results from the study show three main themes which include outside support, competing demands, and program obstacles. Tinto’s Doctoral Theory of Persistence was used to frame this study as research has shown that academic and social factors impact doctoral success. The findings suggest that support from the cohort, chair, and the institution is effective in helping doctoral students overcome barriers faced during the dissertation phase. Recommendations for doctoral programs in Educational Leadership are provided. The study’s findings suggest further research is needed to investigate the gender differences in doctoral studies, chair perspectives in ABD status, and Latino ABD students’ experiences
A qualitative case study examining the factors that contribute to the retention of experienced special education teachers in Texas public schools
(2023-05-05) Newsom, Jeanne Lynn; Beavers, Elizabeth; Seevers, Randy; Peters, Michelle; Cooper, Jane
The special education teacher shortage in the U.S. continues to grow and the implication of this shortage is multifaceted. First and foremost, students that are eligible for special education may not be receiving the educational supports and services that they deserve and legally require. Additionally, this shortage may cause great financial burdens on school districts that are continually having to hire and train new special education teachers. There also may be negative financial obligations when districts are sued because there are inadequate or uncertified teachers supporting these students. There are many studies that have inquired why teachers leave the field of education, however, there are minimal that have explored special education teachers specifically, and according to Billingsley and Bettini (2019) current studies of special education teachers that leave or remain are largely quantitative. The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate the perceptions and experiences of special education teachers that have remained in the field. The research questions revolved around intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors regarding why they have remained. Using both in person and a video conference platform, five participants were interviewed with an open-ended interview protocol. The researcher then analyzed the interview transcripts which revealed two intrinsic (work itself and achievement) and three extrinsic (supervisor/leadership quality, working conditions, and coworker relations) emergent themes. Overall, the findings of this qualitative study revealed interventions for education leaders and authors/instructors of educator preparation programming to assist in reducing the special education teacher shortage.
A Study of Texas Community College Property Tax Funding and Selected Student Performance Measures
(2019-04-30) Wilson, Michelle Cantu; Corrales, Antonio; Peters, Michelle; Raymond, Roberta D; Richardson, Tim
The purpose of this sequential mixed methods study was to examine the relationship between Texas community college property tax revenue and student transfer, licensure, and completion. This study reviewed data from the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board and the Texas Association of Community Colleges for a purposeful sample of the 50 community college districts in Texas in order to determine funding impact. A purposive sample of 16 community college chancellors and presidents was used for the semi-structured interviews which allowed for a deeper understanding of the relationship between property tax funding and transfer, licensure, and completion. Findings of the study concluded that there was a relationship between Texas community college property tax revenue and transfer, licensure and completion. For both rural and non-rural community colleges in Texas, there was a relationship between property tax revenue and transfer, licensure, and completion. For border and non-border community colleges, there was a relationship between property tax revenue and transfer, licensure, and completion. Regarding the 10 education regions in Texas, there was a relationship between property tax revenue and transfer in Regions 3, 6, and 8. There was also a relationship between property tax revenue and licensure in Regions 3, 6, 7, and 8. Findings of the study showed there was a relationship between property tax revenue and completion in Regions 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8. Lastly, findings from the semi-structured interviews revealed that 65% of the community college chancellors and presidents felt there was a relationship between property tax revenue and transfer, 50% felt there was a relationship between property tax revenue and licensure, and 94% felt there was a relationship between property tax revenue and student completion.
A Study on the Impact of Kindergarten on the Mathematical Skills of African American Students
(2021-12-06) Green, Aronda LaShe; Brown, Amber L; Lastrapes, Renee; Graves, Shanna; Jain, Preeti
The specific purpose of this study was to add to the previous research using The Early Childhood Longitudinal Database to examine if there is a difference in the mathematics achievement growth trajectory of African American students based on racial-ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and kindergarten participation (attendance for the first time or repetition). Using a convenience sample, a nationally representative sample of children was identified from archival data that included mathematical assessment scores, student racial-ethnic identity, family socioeconomic status, and kindergarten participation. The researcher used a quantitative study method to test the effects of students’ characteristics on their mathematical assessment scores. Data analysis showed math scores generally increased significantly from kindergarten to third grade for all students independent of their subgroup affiliation. However, math scores did not change at the same rate when disaggregated by student ethnicity. The rate of change in student math scores from year to year did not differ significantly relative to income. Overall, however, there was a significant difference in math scores relative to income. Math scores did not change at the same rate when disaggregated by whether students attended kindergarten for the first time. Overall, however, there was no significant difference in math scores between students who had attended kindergarten for the first time and students who had attended kindergarten more than once.
After-School STEM Programs and the Impact on 21st Century Skill Development
(2021-12-13) Dees, Sara Katherine; Willis, Jana
This thesis used data collected from an online survey of 22 Code Ninjas employees in the United States to determine the impact of an after-school science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) program on students’ development of 21st-century skills. This study’s findings indicated most owners and Center Directors agree social skills and creative thinking skills are improved through enrollment in an after-school program like Code Ninjas. More than half of the participants shared first-hand accounts of instances where students demonstrated 21st-century skills while working in the Code Ninjas program.
An examination of teacher leader' and teachers' perceptions of the Trainer of Trainer model of professional development
(2017-08-14) Hobbs, Shandar Nicole Armstrong; Matthew, Kathryn; McEnery, Lillian; Raymond, Roberta; Harrell, Scott
The practice of using teacher leaders to support and develop teachers from within the educational organization is gaining support from research. The Trainer of Trainers (TOT) model of professional development is one practice used to develop educators. This study focused on the perceptions of teacher leaders within the TOT model. Teachers’ perceptions were studied regarding professional development received from teacher leaders as a result of two TOT learning opportunities. Student interviews offered insight into the transference of strategies from the TOT to classroom practice. Qualitative research was conducted through interviews, observations, reflections, and professional development artifacts. Findings support the use of Adult Learning Theory practices during TOT opportunities. Teacher leaders and teachers prefer professional development opportunities in small, manageable chunks which allows time to absorb material, practice within the classroom, and receive feedback regarding implementation of new instructional practices.
An examination of the impact Career and Technical Education (CTE) programs have on high school graduation rates
(2021-04-16) Bouchard, Kai Christopher; Corrales, Antonio; Lastrapes, Renee; Cothern, Thomas; Divoll, Kent
The purpose of this study focuses on the effects of enrollment in Career and Technical Education (CTE) courses on high school graduation rates. The study utilized archival data from 16,953 high school students from the Drowsy Willow Independent School District (DWISD), a large suburban school district in southeast Texas. Archived transcript and demographic data were collected of each high school student enrolled in DWISD between 2010-2016. Chi-square Tests of Independence and Logistic Regression were used to evaluate the relationship between the students’ enrollment in CTE coursework and their probability for graduating high school. Additionally, 12 CTE educators were interviewed to determine their perceptions of how CTE coursework influence and affect students at-risk of dropping out of school. The results of this study reveal that a significant relation exists between CTE enrollment and student dropout behavior. These findings offer new insight regarding the extent to which students should enroll in CTE coursework and as to how CTE educators can engage students at-risk of dropping out
An exploration of the relationship between African American health care professionals' resilience and their perceived experiences of their health care programs' organizational support
(2018-06-28) Washington, Jqar Shayne; Lastrapes, Renee; Cothern, Thomas; Kahn, Michelle; Orange, Amy; Richardson, Timothy
The purpose of this mixed methods study was to examine the relationship of resilience levels of African American (AA) health care professionals and their perceived experiences of organizational support for training in health care programs for colleges and universities. Despite an increase in more diverse applicants for health care profession programs, the AA population is considered an underrepresented minority in the field of medicine. Pressures on higher institutions of learning to resolve the long-standing issue of retaining AAs in the academic environment of health care professions field continue to increase, as do the pressures of the Offices of Student Affairs and Admissions to offer support services that help to enhance the educational experience of students attending the university. Surveys were sent to AA health care professionals in order to assess their perception of their health care training programs organizational support, and to assess the resiliency levels of when they were students enrolled in health care training programs. A purposeful sample of eight AA health care professionals were interviewed in an attempt to provide more in-depth information on AA college students' experiences with health care training programs. The results concluded that there was no significant relationship between (a) resilience levels of AA and their perceptions of organizational support for training in health care programs, (b) difference of resilience levels by gender, and (c) difference of perceived experiences by gender. Additionally, the majority of the participants shared more positive than negative experiences about their health care training programs. The factors contributing to the success of the health care participants included faith, support from family and higher education administrators, and personal motivation. Findings from the study indicated that AA health care participants experiences successful academic achievement due to the organizational support offices and support systems that were in place at their university. However, many AA participants conducted research on their own or relied on high school counselors and academic advisors for guidance when they made the decision to attend a health care training program.
An Investigation of the Modes of Conflict Utilized by Large School Principals
(2015-11-24) Martinez, Doreen A; Simieou, Felix; Kajs, Lawrence; Grigsby, Bettye; Morgan, Bryan
This was a study of the investigation of the modes of conflict utilized by large school principals when dealing with principal-teacher conflict. The goal of this study was to examine the relationship between the principal’s sex, years of administrative experience, years on current campus, and years of educational experience have on the mode of conflict resolution utilized when dealing with principal-teacher conflict. The modes of conflict explored in this study were the following: avoiding, competing, accommodating, compromising, and collaborative modes. The participants of this study included 39 large school secondary principals employed in Texas during the 2013-2014 school year. The modes of conflict were measured by the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI). The data from the TKI were analyzed using descriptive statistics, independent samples t-test, and the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r). The results of the analysis indicated a strong, statistically significant mean relationship between the sex of the participant and the collaborating mode of conflict. This finding indicated females tend to utilize the preferred mode of conflict. In addition, a statistically significant negative relationship existed between the principal’s years on their campus and the use of the competitive mode of conflict. Thus as the number of years the principal remains on their current campus, the less likely they were to utilize the competitive mode of conflict when dealing with principal-teacher conflict. No significant relationships were found in the principal’s years of education and administration and their use of the modes of conflict when dealing with principal/teacher conflict. The results of this study will help educational leaders gain a better understanding of how conflict can be utilized to bring about change in education. In addition, it provided research to support the need to include conflict resolution training to principal preparation programs in order to retain highly qualified leaders and reduce burnout due to unmanaged conflict. The results of the study also added to current research that males and females approach conflict differently. Ultimately, this study brought an awareness that conflict is not necessarily bad for an organization, and has the potential to help a school make the necessary leaps to achieve academic success.
Are the Needs of First-Year Teachers Different Based on Preparation Program?
(2022-04-11) Scott, Mandy C; Moore, Kelly; Lastrapes, Renée E; Orange, Amy; Bayard, Robert
The purpose of this study was to examine the teacher self-efficacy of traditionally and alternatively-certified teachers and to determine if there is a perceived difference in levels of self-efficacy after the first-year of teaching in those teachers who completed a traditional certification program or an alternative certification program. The researcher also examined the perceptions of needs and levels of self-efficacy of first-year teachers who completed an alternative program compared to those of first-year teachers who completed a traditional program for certification. The qualitative data was analyzed to examine what alternatively-certified teachers’ perceptions of needs are and what traditionally prepared teachers’ perceptions of needs are. This mixed methods study used a survey in order to capture the first-year teachers’ level of self-efficacy who went through different types of certification and interviews to examine the perceived needs of first-year teachers. Through the lens of Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy’s Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) and Bandura’s social learning theory, this study examined the first-year teachers’ beliefs as it relates to their self-efficacy. The participants included fifty-one elementary and secondary first-year teachers in a school district in Texas. The results of the study suggest there is no significant differences between the traditional certification and alternative certification teachers’ beliefs on self-efficacy in any of the domains – student engagement, instructional strategies, or classroom management.
Bending barriers: African American women in education leadership
(2022-11-30) Ramirez, Barbara; Corrales, Antonio; Peters, Michelle; Grace, Jennifer; Martin, Akilah
ABSTRACT BENDING BARRIERS: AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN IN EDUCATION LEADERSHIP Barbara A. Ramirez University of Houston-Clear Lake, 2022 Dissertation Chair: Antonio Corrales, EdD The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of African American women in institutions of higher education in the state of Texas regarding career progression and potential barriers to leadership. Of specific interest is a more in-depth understanding of perceived barriers along the career pathway and strategies suggested by leaders that have reached or exceed beyond what is considered the pinnacle level of achievement in higher education. Oikelome (2017) recognizes what some consider achieving a level of success in higher education by stating, “The college presidency is a benchmark of status and achievement in the academy” (p. 23). A sample of educators at the level of dean or higher was selected to participate in this study to explore their individual perception of barriers that affect the career pathways of African American women pursuing positions in higher education at executive level. The selected literature corroborates the disparity in African American women at the college and university senior executive level. The literature will highlight various challenges related to race and gender. Lastly, the study will review strategies used to overcome barriers to educational leadership. Further research on this topic should include an examination of the career pathways of African American women in two and four-year institutions.
Classroom management self-efficacy and burnout of teachers who began their career during the 2020/2021 school year
(2022-12-07) Defelice, Corey; Divoll, Kent; Peters, Michelle; Raymond, Roberta; Grace, Jennifer
The purpose of this mixed methods study was to examine the difference in classroom management self-efficacy (CMSE) of year one taught virtually and year two taught in-person for beginning teachers and if this transition impacted teacher burnout. A purposeful sample of second-year teachers was selected to complete the Efficacy in Classroom Management subscale of the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) and the Work-related Burnout subscale of the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI). The survey data were analyzed using a paired t-test and frequencies and percentages while qualitative data were analyzed using an inductive coding process. The quantitative findings indicated that there was a statistically significant mean difference in the CMSE of second-year teachers who taught their first-year virtually and their second year in-person. The findings further indicated that the transition to in-person learning did influence teacher burnout. The quantitative data indicated that elementary and middle school teachers have experienced greater feelings of burnout than high school teachers. The qualitative data supported these findings and identified themes related to the reasons for the significant mean difference in CMSE and the feelings of burnout.
Closing the advanced placement opportunity gap for traditionally underrepresented students
(2018-04-10) Roberts, Jennifer; Corrales Chavez, Antonio; Peters, Michelle; Orange, Amy; Unruh, Tiffany
Exposure to rigorous curriculum is a significant predictor of college persistence and success. Traditionally underrepresented students, those who are African American, Hispanic, and identified as economically disadvantaged often do not engage in Advance Placement (AP) courses. There are several factors that lead to decreased participation of underrepresented students in AP courses including lack of information and education of the benefits of engaging in the AP curriculum. The purpose of this study was to examine the social capital of students and the students’ perceptions of their high school experiences related to college readiness. This study examined student perspectives in the areas of attitude toward college, teacher expectations and interactions, college readiness, school-wide support, and parental engagement. Additionally, student perspective was examined related to their high school experiences in terms of preparation for college and support from school faculty. Data were collected from a purposeful sample of seniors enrolled in English IV. The participants were individually matched by enrollment or non-enrollment in AP courses, gender, and ethnicity. The matched sample consisted of 123 students in AP courses and 123 students not in AP courses. Nine students participated in a focus group to obtain a deeper understanding of their high school experiences. The findings in this study show overall students in AP courses and those not in AP courses have comparable perspectives of their high school experiences as it relates to attitude toward college, teacher expectations and interactions, school wide support, and parental engagement. Only in the area of college readiness do students not enrolled in AP courses perceive they are not as prepared as their counterparts enrolled in AP courses. The focus group data revealed students felt their teachers and the College and Career Advisor were instrumental in assisting them with college planning and course selection. The students in the focus group spoke to the influence of their peers in selecting courses. The students also pointed to the importance of participating in extracurricular activities as a way to round out their high school experiences.
Collective teacher efficacy: Its influence on teacher beliefs and behaviors in classroom instruction
(2019-08-09) Mendoza, Joda B; Browning, Sandra; Orange, Amy; Divoll, Kent; MdDonald, Denise
The purpose of this mixed methods study was to examine the influence of collective teacher efficacy (CTE) on teacher beliefs and behaviors that result in engagement of all students and persistence with those who struggle academically. This study consisted of eight high school teachers of English, mathematics, science, and social studies who each participated in a survey, an interview and a classroom observation. Data analysis allowed the researcher to make connections between participant scores of the Collective Teacher Beliefs (CTB) Instructional Strategies subscale, responses to interview questions, and observations made during classroom visits. Teachers scores on the CTB scale ranged from 5.50 to 8.83 on a nine-point Likert scale, which translated into degrees of CTE of “to some degree” to “a great deal”. Overall results of this study indicate teachers’ beliefs and behaviors regarding communicating high expectations for student learning, persistence with students who struggle academically, and promotion of student autonomy are consistent with their scores on the CTB scale and past research on CTE. Furthermore, the results of this study show that teachers with a higher score on the CTB scale utilize strategies that promote student goal setting, initiate and maintain student engagement, and monitor the progress and performance of all students during instruction more consistently than those teachers with a lower sense of CTE.
College readiness variables for African American high school seniors
(2022-08-05) Goodwin, Kathy Kay; Willis, Jana; Richardson, Timothy; Jones, Lisa; Peters, Michelle
This sequential mixed methods study examined the variables of attendance, discipline, school feeder patterns, economically disadvantaged, and extracurricular activity participation on the college readiness of African American (AA) high school seniors. The data were analyzed to determine if there was a relationship between the five variables and college readiness of the seniors. A purposeful sample of AA high school seniors from a large diverse school district in Texas was utilized for the study. The data concerning AA high school seniors consisted of archived Public Education Information Management System (PEIMS) data, survey of college ready AA high school seniors, and semi-structured interviews of college ready AA high school seniors. Descriptive analysis of Pearson’s moment correlation was used to analyze quantitative PEIMS data and Qualtrics survey data. The seniors’ perceptions of the five variables were analyzed using a thematic coding process. Triangulation of the archived PEIMS data, survey, and semi-structured interviews helped the researcher gain a comprehensive perspective of the AA high school seniors’ mindsets towards the variables to become college ready. Findings indicated that even though AA high school seniors were consistently behind academically compared to their Hispanic and White peers and faced discrimination and racial bias both in and out of the school, some AA high school seniors persevered and maintained a college ready mindset. Most of the college ready AA high school seniors commented that doing the right thing at all times was instilled in them by their parents (particularly mothers) and making goals and plans early in their school years aided their drive to be college ready.
Correlation of Claim, Evidence, and Reasoning as a Writing Framework and Students’ Success Rates in High School Science District Standardized Tests
(2020-04-15) Abid, Muhammad; Weiser, Brenda; Peters, Michelle; Orange, Amy; Raymond, Roberta D
The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to examine the relationship between science writing and student science achievement and how teachers implement the writing strategy claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER) in their science classrooms. Writing is a critical tool for scientific literacy and student achievement. We must teach our students to write well. To accomplish the study, twenty-five science teachers from five high schools of a large urban school district located in southeast Texas participated in the study. The study provided significant results of students' achievement in science by the implantation of writing CER in science classrooms. Nine teachers from two schools where the researcher served, participated in the semi-structured interviews regarding the implementation of the CER writing framework in their science classrooms. Interviewees' responses revealed that teachers showed positive perceptions regarding CER, CER training, and its implementation in science classrooms.
Current Perceptions of Science as a Career Choice of Underrepresented 11th and 12th Grade Students in a Low Socioeconomic Area High School
(2020-05-13) Kibler, Kelvin Cornelius; Jones, Lisa; McDonald, Denise M; Duncan Williams, Omah M; Weiser, Brenda
The United States has a shortage of qualified workers in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Zhang & Barnett, 2015). There is a critical shortage of underrepresented students seeking science majors and possible science-based careers. The purpose of the study was to examine the perceptions of underrepresented juniors and seniors at a low socioeconomic status (SES) area high school about the need for science education in their possible college majors and future career choices. The study, consisting of 10 underrepresented students, developed common threads in the data collected that speak to the perceptions of underrepresented minority high school junior and senior students on science as a major and a possible career choice. The perceptions from the participants of the study may provide a clear picture for improvement of instructional strategies in science education.
Determining Equivalence in learning outcomes for freshman-level composition courses taught online and via face-to-face delivery
(2016-03-15) Delauro, Kimberly Ann; Morgan, Bryan; Carman, Carol; McEnery, Lillian; Willis, Jana
Distance learning has become an increasingly important element in the landscape of higher education, with more colleges and universities considering distance learning course delivery as part of their strategic plans. While distance-learning courses are often assumed to have equal learning outcomes as their face-to-face counterparts, very few studies have quantitatively explored whether this is indeed the case. This study sought to determine whether freshman-level composition courses taught via a traditional face-to-face delivery method and courses taught via online delivery had equivalent course outcomes. For this study, essays written by community college freshman students in the second half of the fall 2014 semester in courses using both delivery modes were assessed by three independent raters, using a rubric. The two one-sided t test (TOST) method was used to determine equivalence and ascertain whether the students’ scores fell within a zone of equivalence of ±30% of the mean for the scores. Because the face-to-face students had consistently higher means, t tests were then used to determine whether these differences were significant. The findings of this study revealed that the face-to-face and distance learning freshman composition courses were not equivalent for any of the rubric outcome areas of essay structure, essay content, essay clarity, and use of sources. The findings also indicated that for most of the outcome areas, the means were significantly different, with the face-to-face students out-performing the distance-learning students in all of the rubric outcome areas.

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